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Grammar & Usage
व्याकरण एवं प्रयोग
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1. Grammar & Usage
व्याकरण एवं प्रयोग
Clauses — the unit the rest of this chapter is built on
A clause has a subject and a finite verb. A main (independent) clause can stand alone; a subordinate (dependent) clause cannot, and does the work of a single part of speech inside the sentence.
| Subordinate clause | Does the work of | Example |
|---|
| Noun clause | a noun — subject, object or complement | I know that he is honest |
.
·
What he said
was true.
| Adjective (relative) clause | an adjective — it qualifies a noun | The book that you gave me is lost. |
| Adverb clause | an adverb — time, place, reason, purpose, condition, concession, result | Although he was ill, he came. |
The same word can open all three, so decide by the clause's job, not its first word. that in I know that he came opens a noun clause (object of know); in the man that came an adjective clause; in he ran so fast that he won an adverb clause of result.
- Simple — one finite verb: Being ill, he stayed at home.
- Compound — two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so): He was ill, so he stayed at home.
- Complex — one main clause and at least one subordinate: As he was ill, he stayed at home.
- Compound-complex — two main clauses and at least one subordinate
Defining and non-defining relative clauses — the commas carry the meaning
- My brother who lives in Patna is a doctor. — defining: I have more than one brother, and this one lives in Patna
- My brother, who lives in Patna, is a doctor. — non-defining: I have one brother, and this is extra information
- That cannot open a non-defining clause. My brother, that lives in Patna is always wrong.
उपवाक्य — इस पूरे अध्याय की आधार इकाई
उपवाक्य (clause) में कर्ता एवं समापिका (finite) क्रिया होती है। प्रधान (main) उपवाक्य अकेले खड़ा हो सकता है; आश्रित (subordinate) उपवाक्य नहीं, और वह वाक्य के भीतर किसी एक शब्द-भेद का काम करता है।
| आश्रित उपवाक्य | किसका काम करता है | उदाहरण |
|---|
| Noun clause | संज्ञा का — कर्ता, कर्म या पूरक | I know that he is honest. · What he said was true. |
| Adjective (relative) clause | विशेषण का — संज्ञा की विशेषता | The book that you gave me is lost. |
| Adverb clause | क्रियाविशेषण का — समय, स्थान, कारण, उद्देश्य, शर्त, विरोध, परिणाम | Although he was ill, he came. |
एक ही शब्द तीनों को आरंभ कर सकता है, अतः निर्णय उपवाक्य के काम से करें, पहले शब्द से नहीं। I know that he came में that noun clause खोलता है (know का कर्म); the man that came में adjective clause; he ran so fast that he won में परिणामसूचक adverb clause।
संरचना के अनुसार वाक्य
- Simple — एक समापिका क्रिया: Being ill, he stayed at home.
- Compound — दो या अधिक प्रधान उपवाक्य, समानाधिकरण संयोजक से जुड़े (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so): He was ill, so he stayed at home.
- Complex — एक प्रधान एवं कम से कम एक आश्रित: As he was ill, he stayed at home.
- Compound-complex — दो प्रधान एवं कम से कम एक आश्रित
Defining एवं non-defining relative clause — अर्थ अल्पविराम में है
- My brother who lives in Patna is a doctor. — defining: मेरे एक से अधिक भाई हैं, और यह वाला पटना में रहता है
- My brother, who lives in Patna, is a doctor. — non-defining: मेरा एक ही भाई है, और यह अतिरिक्त सूचना है
- That non-defining clause आरंभ नहीं कर सकता। My brother, that lives in Patna सदैव गलत है।
Transformation of sentences — the drill the paper sets most
The meaning must survive the change. Every pattern below keeps it.
Simple ↔ complex ↔ compound
- Being ill, he could not come. → As he was ill, he could not come. → He was ill, so he could not come.
Too … to ↔ so … that … not — the negative appears in the rewritten sentence
- He is too weak to walk. → He is so weak that he cannot walk.
Degrees of comparison — the pattern the paper uses most, and the one with a trap
- Superlative: Mumbai is the largest city in India.
- Comparative: Mumbai is larger than any other city in India.
- Positive: No other city in India is as large as Mumbai.
- Larger than any city in India is wrong: without other, Mumbai is compared with itself.
- When the thing is one of the largest rather than the largest: Patna is one of the largest cities in Bihar → Patna is larger than most other cities in Bihar → Very few cities in Bihar are as large as Patna.
Affirmative ↔ negative, meaning unchanged
- He is always punctual. → He is never late.
- Only a fool would do that. → None but a fool would do that.
Interrogative ↔ assertive (the rhetorical question)
- Who does not love his country? → Everyone loves his country.
Exclamatory ↔ assertive
- What a beautiful sight! → It is a very beautiful sight.
No sooner … than ↔ as soon as — note the inversion after No sooner
- No sooner did he reach than it rained. → As soon as he reached, it rained.
- The same inversion follows hardly, scarcely and never at the start of a sentence: Never have I seen such courage.
वाक्य रूपांतरण — प्रश्नपत्र में सर्वाधिक पूछा जाने वाला अभ्यास
रूपांतरण में अर्थ नहीं बदलना चाहिए। नीचे का हर पैटर्न अर्थ बनाए रखता है।
Simple ↔ complex ↔ compound
- Being ill, he could not come. → As he was ill, he could not come. → He was ill, so he could not come.
Too … to ↔ so … that … not — नकारात्मक शब्द बदले हुए वाक्य में आता है
- He is too weak to walk. → He is so weak that he cannot walk.
तुलना की अवस्थाएँ — सर्वाधिक प्रयुक्त पैटर्न, और इसी में जाल है
- Superlative: Mumbai is the largest city in India.
- Comparative: Mumbai is larger than any other city in India.
- Positive: No other city in India is as large as Mumbai.
- Larger than any city in India गलत है: other के बिना मुंबई की तुलना स्वयं से हो जाती है।
- जब वस्तु सबसे बड़ी न होकर सबसे बड़ों में से एक हो: Patna is one of the largest cities in Bihar → Patna is larger than most other cities in Bihar
Non-finites, conditionals, determiners and question tags
Non-finites — verb forms that carry no tense of their own
- Infinitive: to go · Gerund (an -ing form doing a noun's job): Swimming is good exercise. · Participle (an -ing or -ed form doing an adjective's job): a running tap, a broken glass
- The dangling participle. Walking down the road, a tree fell on me says the tree was walking. The participle must belong to the subject of the main clause: Walking down the road, I saw a tree fall.
- Gerund, not infinitive, after: enjoy, avoid, mind, finish, deny, suggest, consider, practise, admit, keep — I enjoy reading, never enjoy to read
- When to is a preposition it takes -ing: look forward to meeting you, object to waiting, be used to working, with a view to finding
The four conditionals
| Type | If-clause | Main clause | Use |
|---|
| Zero | present | present | general truth — If you heat ice, it melts. |
| First | present | will + V1 | real future — If it rains, I will stay. |
| Second | past (were for all persons) | would + V1 | unreal present — If I were rich, I would travel. |
| Third | had + V3 | would have + V3 | unreal past — If he had worked, he would have passed. |
Neither will nor would have ever goes inside the if-clause of a condition.
Determiners that change the meaning
- Few = hardly any (negative) · a few = some (positive) · the few = all of the small number there are: The few books he had were old. The same pattern holds for little / a little / the little with uncountable nouns
- Each of the boys is correct; every of the boys is not — every never takes of
Question tags — a positive statement takes a negative tag, and the reverse
- I am right, aren't I? — never amn't I
- Let's go, shall we? · Shut the door, will you?
- Nobody came, did they? — nobody is negative, so the tag is positive, and indefinite pronouns take they
- He has hardly any money, has he? — hardly is negative too
Non-finites, conditionals, determiners एवं question tags
Non-finites — क्रिया के वे रूप जिनका अपना काल नहीं होता
- Infinitive: to go · Gerund (संज्ञा का काम करता -ing रूप): Swimming is good exercise. · Participle (विशेषण का काम करता -ing या -ed रूप): a running tap, a broken glass
- Dangling participle। Walking down the road, a tree fell on me का अर्थ है कि पेड़ चल रहा था। participle प्रधान उपवाक्य के कर्ता का होना चाहिए: Walking down the road, I saw a tree fall.
- इनके बाद infinitive नहीं, gerund: enjoy, avoid, mind, finish, deny, suggest, consider, practise, admit, keep — I enjoy reading, enjoy to read कभी नहीं
- जब to preposition हो तो उसके बाद -ing: look forward to meeting you, object to waiting, be used to working
Points to Remember
- A clause needs a subject and a finite verb; decide noun / adjective / adverb clause by its JOB, not its first word
- Compound = main + main (FANBOYS) · Complex = main + subordinate
- Commas make a relative clause non-defining; that can never open one
- Degree transformation: larger than ANY OTHER · no other … as large as — without other the thing is compared with itself
- Too … to → so … that … NOT
- Inversion after no sooner, hardly, scarcely, never at the start: No sooner did he reach …
- Dangling participle: the -ing phrase must belong to the main clause's subject
- Gerund after enjoy, avoid, mind, finish, deny, suggest · look forward to + -ing
- Conditionals: zero · first (will) · second (were/would) · third (had + V3 / would have + V3) — never will in the if-clause
- Few = hardly any · a few = some · the few = all of a small number
- Tags: aren't I · shall we after let's · nobody … did they · hardly … has he
- Exam tip: In degree-of-comparison items the wrong options are nearly always the right sentence with one word removed — usually other. Before choosing, ask whether the sentence compares the subject with the rest of its group or with a group that includes itself.
- Exam tip: For conditionals, identify the time and reality first — a general truth, a real future, an unreal present or an unreal past — and the verb forms follow from the table. Candidates who start from the verbs pick would inside the if-clause, which is the commonest wrong answer set.
याद रखने योग्य बिंदु
- उपवाक्य में कर्ता एवं समापिका क्रिया चाहिए; noun / adjective / adverb clause का निर्णय उसके काम से करें, पहले शब्द से नहीं
- Compound = प्रधान + प्रधान (FANBOYS) · Complex = प्रधान + आश्रित
- अल्पविराम relative clause को non-defining बनाते हैं; that उसे कभी आरंभ नहीं करता
- तुलना रूपांतरण: larger than ANY OTHER · no other … as large as — other के बिना वस्तु की तुलना स्वयं से होती है
- Too … to → so … that … NOT
- आरंभ में no sooner, hardly, scarcely, never के बाद उलटा क्रम: No sooner did he reach …
- Dangling participle: -ing वाक्यांश प्रधान उपवाक्य के कर्ता का होना चाहिए
- enjoy, avoid, mind, finish, deny, suggest के बाद gerund · look forward to + -ing
- Conditionals: zero · first (will) · second (were/would) · third (had + V3 / would have + V3) — if-उपवाक्य में will कभी नहीं
- Few = लगभग कोई नहीं · a few = कुछ · the few = थोड़े-से सब
- Tags: aren't I · let's के बाद
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→
Very few cities in Bihar are as large as Patna.
Affirmative ↔ negative, अर्थ वही
- He is always punctual. → He is never late.
- Only a fool would do that. → None but a fool would do that.
प्रश्नवाचक ↔ कथनात्मक (अलंकारिक प्रश्न)
- Who does not love his country? → Everyone loves his country.
- What a beautiful sight! → It is a very beautiful sight.
No sooner … than ↔ as soon as — No sooner के बाद उलटा क्रम देखें
- No sooner did he reach than it rained. → As soon as he reached, it rained.
- वाक्य के आरंभ में hardly, scarcely एवं never के बाद भी यही उलटा क्रम आता है: Never have I seen such courage.
,
with a view to
finding
| प्रकार | If-उपवाक्य | प्रधान उपवाक्य | प्रयोग |
|---|
| Zero | present | present | सार्वभौमिक सत्य — If you heat ice, it melts. |
| First | present | will + V1 | वास्तविक भविष्य — If it rains, I will stay. |
| Second | past (सभी पुरुषों में were) | would + V1 | अवास्तविक वर्तमान — If I were rich, I would travel. |
| Third | had + V3 | would have + V3 | अवास्तविक भूत — If he had worked, he would have passed. |
शर्त वाले if-उपवाक्य में न will आता है, न would have।
अर्थ बदलने वाले determiners
- Few = लगभग कोई नहीं (नकारात्मक) · a few = कुछ (सकारात्मक) · the few = जो थोड़े-से हैं, वे सब: The few books he had were old. अगणनीय संज्ञाओं के साथ little / a little / the little में यही पैटर्न है
- Each of the boys सही; every of the boys गलत — every के साथ of कभी नहीं
Question tags — सकारात्मक कथन के साथ नकारात्मक tag, और इसका उल्टा
- I am right, aren't I? — amn't I कभी नहीं
- Let's go, shall we? · Shut the door, will you?
- Nobody came, did they? — nobody नकारात्मक है, अतः tag सकारात्मक, और अनिश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम they लेते हैं
- He has hardly any money, has he? — hardly भी नकारात्मक है
shall we
·
nobody … did they
·
hardly … has he
परीक्षा सूत्र: तुलना वाले प्रश्नों में गलत विकल्प लगभग सदैव सही वाक्य होते हैं जिनसे एक शब्द हटा दिया गया हो — प्रायः other। चुनने से पहले पूछें कि वाक्य कर्ता की तुलना उसके समूह के बाकी सदस्यों से कर रहा है या ऐसे समूह से जिसमें वह स्वयं है।परीक्षा सूत्र: conditionals में पहले समय एवं वास्तविकता पहचानें — सार्वभौमिक सत्य, वास्तविक भविष्य, अवास्तविक वर्तमान या अवास्तविक भूत — फिर क्रिया रूप तालिका से निकलते हैं। जो क्रियाओं से शुरू करते हैं वे if-उपवाक्य में would चुन लेते हैं, जो सबसे आम गलत उत्तर है।