उन्नत व्याकरण एवं भाषाविज्ञान
Linguistics — the names, and the ideas they are examined on
| Linguist | Work | Idea |
|---|---|---|
| Ferdinand de Saussure | Course in General Linguistics (1916, compiled after his death from students' notes) | langue (the shared system) vs parole (individual speech); the sign = signifier + signified, joined arbitrarily; synchronic vs diachronic study; syntagmatic vs paradigmatic relations |
| Leonard Bloomfield | Language (1933) | American structuralism — describing a language from its observable forms |
| B.F. Skinner | Verbal Behavior (1957) | language as learned behaviour: imitation, reinforcement, habit |
| Noam Chomsky | Syntactic Structures (1957); Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) | transformational-generative grammar; competence vs performance; deep vs surface structure; Universal Grammar and the Language Acquisition Device; his 1959 review of Skinner turned the field against behaviourism |
| Dell Hymes | late 1960s–1972 | communicative competence — knowing when, to whom and how to say something, not grammar alone |
| J.L. Austin | How to Do Things with Words (1962) | speech acts: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary |
| M.A.K. Halliday | systemic functional grammar | language as a resource for making meaning; Cohesion in English (1976, with Ruqaiya Hasan) |
The branches, by what each studies
Two pairs examiners like to cross. Saussure's langue/parole puts the system in the community; Chomsky's competence/performance, half a century later, puts it in the individual speaker's mind. Both separate the system from its use, so each is offered as the wrong answer for the other.
उन्नत व्याकरण एवं भाषाविज्ञान
English phonology — the numbers and the terms
The 24 consonants by manner of articulation
| Manner | Number | Sounds |
|---|---|---|
| Plosives | 6 | /p b t d k g/ |
| Fricatives | 9 | /f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h/ |
| Affricates | 2 | /tʃ dʒ/ |
| Nasals | 3 | /m n ŋ/ |
| Lateral | 1 | /l/ |
| Approximants | 3 | /r/ and the semi-vowels /w j/ |
उन्नत व्याकरण एवं भाषाविज्ञान
Morphology, word formation and the teaching of English
Morphemes
Word formation
| Process | Example |
|---|---|
| Compounding | blackboard, toothpaste |
| Blending — parts of two words fused | smog (smoke + fog), brunch, motel |
| Clipping — one word shortened | exam, phone, flu |
| Acronym — initials read as a word | NATO, radar, laser (an initialism is spelt out: BBC) |
| Back-formation — a supposed affix removed | edit from editor, donate from donation, televise from television |
| Conversion — a new word class, no change of form | to google, to email, a drink → to drink |
| Borrowing | bungalow, jungle, pyjamas, shampoo — from Indian languages |
| Eponym | sandwich, boycott, watt |
Methods of teaching English
| Method | Core idea |
|---|---|
| Grammar-Translation | rules and translation; reading and writing; the mother tongue used freely |
| Direct Method | the target language only; meaning through objects, pictures and actions; grammar learnt inductively |
| Audio-lingual | drills and habit formation — Skinner's behaviourism plus structural linguistics |
| Communicative Language Teaching | meaning and fluency through tasks, role-play and information gaps — built on Hymes |
| Silent Way (Gattegno) · Suggestopedia (Lozanov) · Total Physical Response (Asher) · Community Language Learning (Curran) | the humanistic methods, usually asked as method–founder pairs |
Krashen's five hypotheses: acquisition–learning, monitor, natural order, input (i + 1 — comprehensible input a little beyond the learner's current level) and affective filter (anxiety blocks acquisition). The four skills are taught in the order LSRW — listening, speaking, reading, writing.
उन्नत व्याकरण एवं भाषाविज्ञान
Points to Remember